Glossary of DNA Paternity Testing Terms
A public service of GeneTree
DNA Testing Center.
Absent Parent: Non custodial parent.
Accrual: The sum of child support payments that are due or overdue.
Acknowledgment of Parentage/Paternity: An acknowledgement by a man, or both parents, that the man is the father of a child, usually provided in writing on an affidavit or form.
Adjudication: The entry of a judgment, decree, or order by a judge or other decision-maker such as a master, referee, or hearing officer based on the evidence submitted by the parties.
Administrative Process: A statutory system granting authority to an executive agency (instead of courts or judges) to determine child support obligations, including paternity establishment, order establishment, enforcement, and modifications.
Admissible; Admissibility: Any testimony, document, or demonstrative material that is officially considered by the court, i.e., allowed into evidence, generally in compliance with the rules of evidence.
AFDC "Aid to Families with Dependant Children": Our national welfare system for children in need of support. It has been replaced with the Personal Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA) by the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) block grant program.
Affidavit: A written statement voluntarily signed under oath, usually in support of a motion.
Affidavit of Denial of Paternity: Sworn statement signed by a
child's mother and her husband at the time of her child's birth
or conception saying the husband is not the father of the child.
Affidavit of Indigency: A sworn statement that you sign that says
you cannot afford to pay court fees.
Alleged Father (AF); Putative Father (PT) A
man who is contesting an accusation of paternity or wishes to
establish it when a question of paternity exists.
Allele: Alternate forms of the same
gene. When a genetic locus is polymorphic, there are alleles
for that gene.
Example are A, B, and O of the ABO blood gene.
Antigen: Genetic product (protein)
that is detected by immunological techniques (using antibodies).
Arrearages: The deficiency between
the amount, if any, paid and the amount required under court order.
If payments are made voluntarily on a de facto basis, i.e., not
under court order, any reduction in the amount of such payments
is not considered an arrearage.
Assignment of Support Rights: As
a condition of eligibility for public assistance (TANF), the custodial
parent must agree to turn over to the State any right to child
support.
Attorney for the Child(ren): A court-appointed
attorney who represents the stated wishes of the child(ren). Unlike
a guardian ad litem who acts in the child's best interest by substituting
her own judgment for the child's, the attorney for the child(ren)
must promote those causes espoused by the child(ren) and generally
not substitute her own judgment.
Autoradiogram, Autoradiograph (Autorad): The
visual recording on x-ray film that displays polymorphic DNA fragments
present in the mother, child, and alleged father.
Band: The visual image on an autoradiograph
that represents a particular DNA fragment.
Bases: (In DNA) Four building blocks
of nucleic acids. They are Adenine (A), Thymine (T), Guanine (G),
and Cytosine (C). They are complementary in that the only stable
base pairs are AT/TA and GC/CG. The length of DNA fragments is
measured in base pairs (bp).
Bayes' Theorem (as applicable to parentage
testing): A statistical procedure to assess the relative
probability of two alternative possibilities based on acquired
information.
| |
W = |
(CPI) (Pr) |
| |
|
(CPI) (Pr) + (1 - Pr) |
| W = |
Probability of Paternity |
| CPI = |
Combined Paternity Index |
| Pr = |
Prior Probability |
Best Interest of the Child: The
legal standard or doctrine for making child-related decisions.
Biological Father: The man
who provided the paternal genetic material of a child.
Burden of Proof: The party asserting
a claim must prove such claim is true. In paternity cases, the burden
in most states requires that paternity be established by a "preponderance
of the evidence," meaning that paternity (or lack of paternity) is "more
likely than not." We call this the 50.01% test, meaning that if evidence
is even slightly greater than 50-50, it constitutes a "preponderance
of evidence." Some states insist on a higher standard, known as the "clear
and convincing evidence" test. This test is more stringent (harder
to overcome) than the "preponderance" test, but not as strict as
the "beyond a reasonable doubt" test,
the standard in criminal cases. Many states have thresholds of 95%
or more percent in order to create a presumption of paternity.
Capias: A civil arrest warrant
ordering the sheriff or other officer to take a person into custody
and deliver him to court. This procedure is used when a party refuses
to appear in court.
Child Support: Court-ordered
payments from the non-custodial parent to the custodial parent that
are not tax deductible by the non-custodial parent, nor includable
in the custodial parent's taxable income.
Child--Guidelines: State
guidelines requiring the non-custodial parent, under normal circumstances,
to pay child support based on a percentage of income.
Child Support Recovery Act (1992): Makes
it a federal crime to fail to pay child support for a child living
in another state.
Chromosome: A thread like
structure found in the nucleus of the cell that carries genetic information
arranged in a linear sequence. It consists of a complex of nucleic
acids and proteins. At certain times during cell life chromosomes
appear as distinct units. In humans there are 46 in the nucleus of
every nucleated cell arranged in 23 pairs.
Codominant: Two alleles that
are both seen in one individual. Example: AB blood type (see dominant
and recessive).
COLA: Cost of living adjustment.
Combined Paternity Index (CPI): The
product of the individual PI values calculated for each independent
test. The CPI is the ratio based on the testing of the probability
that the alleged father is the biological father (x) to the probability
that a random man is the biological father (y). This value is calculated
when the alleged father can not be excluded on a minimum of 2 tests.
Complainant: Also known as "plaintiff," the
person bringing the complaint.
Complaint for Support/Custody/Visitation: Legal action brought to establish support, custody and/or visitation.
Complaint to Establish Parentage: A formal written document filed in court whereby the person initiating the action provides the names the parties involved, the allegations, and the request for relief sought; the initial pleading, sometimes called the petition.
Consent Agreement: A voluntary written admission of paternity or responsibility for support.
Contempt of Court, Complaint for: Legal action brought when the plaintiff/petitioner alleges a willful failure to obey a court order or judgment.
Custodial Parent: Usually refers to the parent with whom the child(ren) reside(s), i.e., the parent with Physical Custody or Primary Physical Custody.
Custody--Legal: A legal status or "custodianship" vesting authority to approve all major decisions affecting a minor child. "Joint," "split," and "shared" legal
custody require both parents' approval of all major decisions.
Custody--Physical: Relates to the
physical location of the child. The adult with whom the child resides is
said to have physical custody. Such terms as "sole," "primary," "shared," and "joint" are
used to describe various parenting and visitation plans.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): The
molecule that encodes genetic information. DNA is a double-stranded
helix held together by weak bonds between base pairs of nucleotides.
DNA is a genetic material that is routinely tested in parentage evaluations.
Default Judgement: A decision made by the court or administrative authority when the defendant fails to respond or appear, i.e., defaults.
Diploid: Containing a complete
set (one from each parent) of homologous (similar) chromosomes.
Direct Exclusion: When a characteristic
is found in the child that is not in the child's mother, it must
have come from the biological father. If an alleged father does not
have the factor, he is excluded for that system. If an alleged father
is excluded on two independent tests, he is excluded as the biological
father of the child.
Discovery; Pretrial Discovery: Discovery is the formal procedure for gathering information pursuant to rules of court.
Dominant: When on allele's expression
in an individual masks the expression of another allele in that individual.
Example: people with type A blood can either have two A alleles or
one A allele and one O allele. The O allele will not be seen due
to the presence of the dominant A allele (see recessive and codominant).
Double Helix: The structure of
DNA. Two strands of DNA coiled around each other forming a spiral
staircase like structure.
Electrophoresis: The
method by which biological molecules are separated according to certain
characteristics. In DNA parentage testing the negatively charged
DNA fragments are cut and separated by size in a porous material
such as agarose, by application of an electric field.
Emancipation: In divorce court, "emancipation" does not necessarily mean "legal majority," i.e.,
18 years old. Depending on the state and the educational status
of the child, emancipation may occur between ages 18 and 23.
Federal Parent Locator Service (FPLS): A computerized national location network operated by the Federal Office of Child Support Enforcement to help the States locate parents in order to obtain child support payments. FPLS obtains address and employer information from Federal agencies and the National Directory of New Hires.
Full Faith and Credit: A constitutional doctrine under which a State must honor an order or judgment entered in another State.
Garnishment; Wage Assignment; Wage Attachment: A court order to a third party, usually an employer, requiring the employee's wages to be attached (automatically deducted from a paycheck) and assigned (paid) to another party, usually the mother.
Gene: The fundamental unit of heredity;
an ordered sequence of nucleotide base pairs to which a specific
product or function can be assigned. Many genes have alternate forms
referred to as alleles (see allele).
Genotype: The actual alleles
present at a given gene locus. Example: individuals who have type
AB blood have the genotype AB, a person who has type A blood could
have the Genotype AA or AO.
Genetic Marker: An inherited
(genetic) characteristic that can be recognized in a tested individual
and is used in differentiating genetically related individuals from
nonrelated individuals.
Guardian ad Litem (GAL): A court-appointed individual who, for the purpose of pending litigation, puts himself in the shoes of a legally incompetent person such as a minor child. He also investigates the matter and files a report with the court.
Guidelines (Child Support): A standard method for calculating child support obligations based on the income of the parent(s) and other factors as determined by State law.
Haploid: Containing only 1 of
each pair of the 46 chromosomes (seen in eggs and sperm).
Hardy-Weinberg Law: The mathematical
expression of the equilibrium of allelic genetic markers within the
population. A mathematical model that allows for the prediction of
occurrence of genetic markers in a population and states that in
a large random intra-breeding population, not subjective to excessive
selection or mutation, the gene and genotype frequency will remain
constant over time.
(p + q)2 = P2 + 2 pq + q2 =
1 p and q represent the frequency of two allelic genes
in a two allele system.
p2 and q2 represent the frequencies of homozygotes.
2pq represents the frequency of heterozygotes.
In a multiple allelic system: (p + q + r + s)2 = 1
r and s represent additional alleles in a multiple allele system. |
Heterozygote (heterozygous): Individual
who has two different forms (alleles) of a specific gene. Example:
people with the AB blood type have two alleles (A and B) for the
blood type gene.
Homologous: In
chromosomes, a pair of chromosomes that contain the same gene (although
perhaps different alleles). There are 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes
in humans; one of each was contributed by each parent.
Homozygote (homozygous): Individual
who has identical forms (alleles) of a given gene. Example: people
with the O blood type have two O alleles of the blood type gene.
Indirect Exclusion: A
presumed exclusion based on the observation that the child and AF
are homozygous for different alleles. It is possible that the child
and AF actually share a null gene that is not detected. An indirect
exclusion is not considered 100% conclusive, and usually before an
opinion of nonpaternity can be rendered, a search is made for a second
direct or indirect exclusion.
Infant: A person who has not reached
legal majority, usually 18 years of age. Also, referred to as a "minor," or
unemancipated child.
Judgment: The official decision or
finding of a judge or administrative agency hearing officer upon
the respective rights and claims of the parties to an action; also
known as a decree or order and may include the "findings of fact
and conclusions of law."
Judgment, Divorce: A determination by a court
that a marriage has legally ended.
Kilobase: One
thousand base pairs of DNA. Often abbreviated as kb.
Long Arm Statute: A law which permits
one State to claim jurisdiction over nonresident parties. There
must be some meaningful connection between the person and the
State in which the jurisdiction is exercised in order for it
to be constitutional to reach beyond the court's normal jurisdictional
border.
Mean Probability of Exclusion: The
probability that a single genetic system will exclude a nonfather
from paternity prior to testing, i.e., independent of the blood
types of the trio tested.
Mediation: An informal, voluntary
process allowing parties to work with a neutral third party (the "mediator")
to develop a parenting and support agreement.
Motion: A written request asking
or "moving" the
court to grant a temporary order, or rule on a legal matter.
Mutation: Any
change in the sequence of genomic DNA.
Non-Custodial Parent (NCP): A legal/natural
parent who resides outside the home and does not have primary
custody of a dependent.
Notary Public: A person appointed by the Governor
to make sure certain documents are signed freely
and by the person indicated.
Office of Child Support Enforcement (OCSE): The
Federal agency within the Administration for Children and Families
in the Department of Health and Human Services that is responsible
for the administration of the child support program.
Parens patriease: The right of
the state to take charge of the care and custody of minor children
or other legal incompetents when their health or safety so
requires.
Parentage Judgment: The decision
of the court regarding the parentage of a child.
Paternity Index (Likelihood
Ratio): For an individual genetic system it is the ratio
between the chance that the alleged father may pass the paternal
gene compared to the chance that a random man may pass the
paternal gene to the child. It is sometimes referred to as
the genetic
odds in favor of paternity, given the genetic findings in the
mother-child-alleged
father.
Phenotype: The
measurable genetic markers in a given individual at a specific
locus. It may or may not reflect the actual alleles present
(see genotype).
Example: a person with type A blood is said to have the A phenotype
but could have the AO genotype.
Polymorphism: The
existence of more than one form of a genetic trait.
Population Database: A
random sampling of alleles for a given probe/racial group combination
used to determine the frequency of an allele in the population.
Population Genetics: A
discipline that examines the character and extent of inherited
differences within and between populations.
Power of Exclusion (A): The
ability of a genetic test to exclude a falsely accused man
of paternity and is dependent upon the phenotypes of the mother
and child and
the ethnic background of the alleged father.
| A = (1 - p) 2 where p = the frequency
of the paternal allele in the child. |
Presumption of Paternity: This is a legal assumption
that a particular person is the child's father.
This will be binding unless proven otherwise.
Prior Probability (Pr): An assigned
numerical value of from 0 - 1 (ranging from impossible to certain)
of the non-genetic evidence used in evaluating paternity. It
is estimated on the basis of the circumstances surrounding
the event, e.g. casual
acquaintance versus an intimate relationship. A prior probability
of 0.5 is considered neutral and is an equal weighting of the
nongenetic evidence for and against paternity.
Private case: Any child-related
litigation to which the state is not a party.
Pro Se; Pro Se Appearance: When a party
handles her own case, i.e., represents herself, she is said to
appear "pro se."
Probability of Paternity (W): A
statistical means of describing the likelihood that the alleged
father is the biological father of the child. This value incorporates
the
genetic (Paternity Index) and nongenetic (Prior Probability)
information.
Probe: Short segment of DNA that
is tagged with a radioactive or chemical tracer and is then used
to detect the presence of a particular DNA sequence through hybridization
to its complementary sequence.
Random Man: A theoretical man
of unknown genetic comparison from a population with the same
racial background as the alleged father.
Random Man Not Excluded (RMNE): The
frequency with which men selected at random from the same racial
group as the alleged father and tested to the same extent as
the alleged father would not be excluded as the biological father
of
the child.
Recessive: A trait that is
partially or completely masked by the effect of a dominant allele.
The dominant A or B allele masks the presence of the recessive
O allele.
Red Cell Antigens: Genetic markers
found on the surface of red cells, e.g. ABO, Rh, MNSs.
Restriction Enzyme: A bacterial
enzyme which recognizes a specific set of bases and the DNA at
that specific site.
Restriction Fragment: A piece
of DNA identified by a specific restriction enzyme.
Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
(RFLP): Variations in the size of DNA fragments produced
by a restriction endonuclease at a polymorphic locus.
Service by Publication: Notice in a newspaper
telling someone that a claim has been filed against
him/her.
Service of Process: The
delivery of a writ or summons to the party to whom
it is directed for
the purpose of obtaining jurisdiction over that party.
Single Locus Probe: A DNA probe
that detects a single DNA region creating one ("homozygote") to
two (heterozygote) bands on an autoradiograph.
Support Order: A legally binding
edict from a court of law that dictates conditions of support
that a noncustodial parent must pay.
Testimony: Statements made by a witness under
oath.
Variable Number of Tandem Repeats (VNRT): DNA
locations that are comprised of short (i.e. 10-70 base pairs)
repeats arranged in tandem. The length of the location will
depend on the
number of times the sequence is repeated. The number of repeats
will vary among nonrelated individuals.
Visitation; Supervised Visitation: Pursuant
to stipulation, agreement, or court order, visits of unemancipated
children with their non-custodial parent. Visits are supervised
by a responsible adult when the non-custodial parent is accused
of child abuse or neglect.
Visitation, Grandparent: Grandparents
have visitation rights in all 50 states. These rights generally
do not cover non-biological descendants, i.e., adopted grandchildren
or biological grandchildren given up for adoption.
Voluntary Acknowledgment of Parentage: A
statement signed by the father (and usually the mother) that
they are indeed the biological parents.
Wage withholding: A procedure by
which automatic deductions are made from wages or income to
pay a debt
such as child support.
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